1. Why English wouldn’t do in a better world
The Manifesto of the Universal Esperanto Association adopted at the 1996 World Congress in Prague states, among other things, that “[t]he unequal distribution of power among languages is a recipe for permanent language insecurity, or outright language oppression, for a large part of the world’s population” (Phillipson 2003 : 173). While not exactly an Esperanto enthusiast, I whole-heartedly agree with this sentiment. Any inequality in status among languages is directly and immediately translated into inequality of opportunity among their speakers; and crowning the pyramid of linguistic inequality is, of course, English.
Much is being said about International English distancing itself from its traditional native-speaker base and becoming a neutral communication tool that no longer belongs to any particular nation. Efforts are being made to replace the traditional English as a Foreign Language teaching model by a more relevant English as a Lingua Franca approach which does not regard the native speaker as the highest authority and the lofty ideal to aspire to but instead focuses on the features that are really important for successful international communication between speakers with very different first-language backgrounds (Graddol 2006). Simplified or ‘controlled’ versions of English have been proposed; some of them, such as Seaspeak for maritime communication, are used in their specific fields to everyone’s apparent satisfaction (Crystal 2003). In Europe, Diego Marani, a professional EU translator, recently initiated a campaign to legitimise – under the general name of Europanto – English-based language mixtures that many Europeans use to communicate with each other. The “frustrations of the vast majority of people who are forced to use English even though their command of the language is not very good” can, in his opinion, be addressed “by speeding up the process of the internationalization of the English language and by its isolation from the Anglo-American culture”. Here is a delightful, if somewhat over-the-top, example of a possible Romance-Germanic Europanto written by Marani himself:
Cabillot was nicht zo bravo in crossverbas.Seine boss le obliged crossverbas te make ut el cervello in exercizio te keep, aber aquello postmeridio inspector Cabillot was mucho somnolento. Wat esse greco, esse blanco und se mange? tinqued. May esse el glace-cream? No, dat esse italiano aber greco nicht. Cabillot slowemente closed los eyos und sich endormed op seine buro. Der telefono ringante presto lo rewakened. (Marani)
The realist, sober-minded part of me can only wish success to such initiatives; however, the idealist in me is less willing to accept the status quo. A basic assumption in this paper will be that, if we are ever to have a genuine global lingua franca able to facilitate fair, rich and accurate communication, English – either in its ‘full’ form or simplified and peppered with yet more random words from other languages – just won’t do. English may be easier for many people to learn than Hungarian or Mandarin, but it is still “in many ways a treacherous language because of the complexities of structure and usage (reflecting its hybrid origins, and subtle variation in how near synonyms are used) and because there is massive variation in the ways English is spoken by people from different parts of the world” (Phillipson 2003 : 140). More importantly, I find it unlikely that any amount of internationalisation will ever sufficiently distance English from its native-speaker base: “A ‘World Standard Spoken English’ is bound to be based on Anglo-American mother tongue norms” (Phillipson 2003 : 166), giving native speakers, even though they already constitute a minority of English users, “an enormous advantage compared to those people who have to study English to be able to speak the language, because their English is the correct one – not the bastardized versions spoken by other peoples” (Marani). Even if the hegemony of English ends some day and another big natural language takes over, we will still have a situation where a majority of the world’s population is at a disadvantage. The only natural languages fit to serve as lingua francas in terms of fairness are dead ones; and even dead languages are disqualified on the grounds of unnecessary complexity.
So, unfair reality aside, what would happen in a better world? As an Ido website has it, “[t]he answer to this situation is to use a neutral invented language”.
2. The existing constructed languages
There are conflicting estimates as to how many ‘a posteriori’ planned languages have been created so far. “About 1,000” is the figure quoted in several sources; however, a quick look at a website like www.languagemaker.com makes one suspect that there must have been many more – and new ones keep appearing all the time. Regardless of the exact number of invented languages, it is probably safe to assume that a majority of them were not created with the explicit purpose of providing the world with a universal lingua franca: such languages as Klingon from the Star Trek series and J. R. R. Tolkien’s Sindarin, as well as numerous lesser-known ‘fictional’ languages, can sometimes boast devoted fan bases, but they were not ‘tailored’ to facilitate international communication in the real world and are normally learned for other reasons. It is also safe to assume that few planned languages have actually been developed in sufficient detail as to be fully functional in the way natural languages are. The multitude of linguistic inventions can thus be narrowed down to just a few contenders, of which the best-known seem to be (in order of appearance) Volapük, Esperanto, Ido, and Interlingua.
Volapük (vola ‘of world’ + pük ‘language’), proposed by Johann Martin Schleyer in 1880, was the first artificial language project to gain significant popularity: during the 1880s, it attracted at least 100,000 enthusiasts (some sources put the number as high as a million) and Volapük clubs sprung up all over Europe. Such was the sweeping popularity of Volapük that an English scholar named Alexander Ellis, in a report to the London Philological Society, was moved to conclude: «all those who desire the insubstantiation of that ‘phantom of a universal language’ which has flitted before so many minds, from the days of the Tower of Babel, should, I think, add their voice to the many thousands who are ready to exclaim lifom-ös Volapük, long live Volapük!» (LaFarge 2000) For the most part, the vocabulary of the original Volapük consisted of unrecognisably modified English roots (vol actually comes from world and pük from speak). The grammar was agglutinative, with a complex system of postfixes and prefixes used to build four German-inspired noun cases and an unrivalled number of verb forms. Both the unnecessary complexity and Schleyer’s stubborn resistance to any reform of the language contributed to a mass desertion of enthusiasts to Esperanto and a quick decline of Volapük; the estimated number of fluent users now stands at 20 people, all of whom learned the language out of linguistic curiosity (LaFarge 2000). However, the initial success of Volapük prepared the ground for later inventions.
Only 7 years younger than Volapük, Esperanto is without a doubt the most successful planned language to date. It was invented by Lejzer (Ludwig) Zamenhof, who grew up in Bialystock, Poland (at the time occupied by the Russian Empire), and later worked as a doctor in Warsaw. Zamenhof, only too familiar with language barriers and aware of the relative success of Volapük, was inspired to press on with his own language project. He published the first outline of his constructed lingua franca in 1887 under the pseudonym ‘Esperanto’ (‘he that hopes’), which eventually caught on as the popular name of his language. The first book contained a basic grammatical sketch accompanied by some 900 roots and a number of text samples. After a somewhat slow start, Esperanto gradually accumulated a dedicated international following and in 1920 was actually considered by the League of Nations for adoption as the working language of the organisation. With France, Britain and the USA pushing for adoption of French and English, one can argue that Esperanto never stood much of a chance; however, 13 countries did vote in its favour, among them Belgium, Brazil, China and Italy. (Phillipson 2003) Despite the vigorous persecution of Esperanto enthusiasts by assorted dictatorial regimes – including Stalin’s Soviet Union, Franco’s Spain and Hitler’s Germany – and the ever-growing role of English as a global lingua franca, the Esperanto movement is still very much alive, and Esperanto remains the only constructed language that most educated people around the world will have heard of. The largest Esperanto organisation, Universala Esperanto-Asocio, has representatives in 62 countries and holds annual conferences around the globe (Yokohama in 2007) (www.uea.org/info/angle/an_ghisdatigo.html), about 250 book titles are published in Esperanto every year, several dozen periodicals appear in the language (Fettes 1990), a simple Google search brings up countless web pages dedicated to it, and the most conservative estimates put the number of fluent speakers at around a million. Much as these statistics pale compared to English and other big languages, “[t]here is no reason to consider these figures insignificant, since speaking Esperanto is an entirely voluntary act almost devoid of material incentives; how many speakers of English as a second language would one expect to find in similar circumstances?” (Fettes 1990) I, for one, tend to think that, along with Modern Hebrew, Esperanto is one of the most impressive exercises in purposeful language construction.
The core vocabulary of Esperanto is Indo-European, with Romance roots constituting a majority of the word stock and the rest coming mostly from German (knabo ‘boy’) or English (birdo ‘bird’); there is also a smattering of Slavic roots (prava ‘right, true’). Like in Volapük, the grammar can be roughly classified as agglutinative: different grammatical markers are stringed onto each other without modifications, e. g. knab root + in feminine marker + o noun marker + j plural marker + n Accusative marker results in knabinojn, as in La knabo approbas knabinojn ‘The boy likes the girls’. There are separate endings for different parts of speech (-o for nouns, -a for adjectives, -e for adverbs, -u for verb infinitives) as well as for different tense forms (-as for present, -is for past, -us for future); all morphology is fully regular. (Sigurd 1993) The standard word order is SVO.
Quite predictably, there have been several attempts to reform and further simplify Esperanto, the most successful of them resulting in Ido, described by an enthusiast as “a language more fit [than Esperanto] for the purpose for which it was intended”. (www.idolinguo.org.uk) In 1907, a special international committee set up by the Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language chose Esperanto as the best available candidate for the role; however, the committee also recommended that the language should be modified and thus made more suitable for international use. This caused a split in the Esperanto movement, and Ido was developed by those who chose to comply with the committee’s decision. Ido does away with such features of Esperanto as the obligatory Accusative Case, adjective-noun agreement, accented letters and certain consonant clusters; it also introduces some different endings, a gender-neutral 3d-person pronoun and a number of vocabulary changes, generally bringing words closer back to their natural-language originals. While Ido definitely enjoys much less popularity than Esperanto, it is nevertheless comparatively vibrant: there are regular international Ido conferences and a number of Ido societies, including Svenska Ido-förbundet. (Sigurd 1993)
The last constructed language I will mention in this section is Interlingua, the brainchild of the International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA). IALA was founded in the
USA in 1924 and, presumably after a great deal of preparatory effort, published the first Interlingua dictionary and grammar in 1951. Like Esperanto and Ido, Interlingua is mostly based on ‘international’ vocabulary, the main criterion of internationalism being that a word has to “occur with the same meanings in at least three of the major European languages: English, French, Italian, Spanish/Portuguese treated as a single language, German, and Russian”. (Stanley) The grammar is essentially a simplified and fully regularised version of what is found in Romance languages. One Interlingua website (www.interlingua.org) paints the following, rather gloomy, picture of the current state of the language: “Following a string of initial successes within the scientific community (chiefly publication of Interlingua abstracts in medical journals and summaries by world medical congresses as well as the distribution of plant disease manuals under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Agriculture) during a quarter of a century, interest in the subject waned as English became the undisputed language of globalization and the Interlingua Institute which had been founded to continue IALA’s work was formally dissolved in November, 2000.” It can also been argued that, strictly speaking, Interlingua was never intended to be a genuine living lingua franca; rather, as even its name suggests, it was designed as an auxiliary ‘interlanguage’ for written texts aimed at passive understanding. However, Interlingua does have an impressive presence on the Internet as a functional lingua franca: in addition to Union Mundial pro Interlingua, there are more than a dozen active national societies, including Svenska Sällskapet för Interlingua. While the issue of the actual number of speakers seems to be tactfully avoided on Interlingua websites, there are regularly updated news pages, considerable learning resources and numerous blogs in the language.
3. The problem with the existing constructed languages
Among the more fully-fledged artificial lingua francas one can find on the Internet, there is a language called Slovio, created by Slovak “scientist and linguist” Mark Hucko. Here is a short passage in Slovio:
To es bezsporju historju fakt zxe sovremju Europanis (negda imenitju Indo-Europanis) es potomkis om Dunavju Slavis (negda imenitju Dunavju Lesju Ludis). Odnakuo to es bezsporju fakt zxe vse Europju jazikas originijut iz odnakju jazika, jazika om Dunavju Slavis. (Berger 2004 : 4)
Now, if you speak Slovak, Polish, Russian, Bulgarian or any other of the Slavic languages, my guess is that you understood that the author of the excerpt is propounding the somewhat dubious theory of all modern Europeans being direct descendants of an ancient people he refers to as the “Danube Slavs”. Slovio claims to be what it is: a Pan-Slavic auxiliary language created to facilitate communication between the 300 million speakers of Slavic languages. Apart from a number of international terms of Latin or Greek origin, it has an exclusively Slavic vocabulary, retains a regularised Slavic morphology and is not supposed to be easily learnable by anyone except the target Slav audience. Slovio is not meant to go global. It is very obviously parochial.
The question is: are the languages I looked at in the previous section more ‘global’ than Slovio? Here is the same sentence in Esperanto, Ido and Interlingua (‘Respected Sirs! I read in your city’s newspaper that you are seeking a clerk.’):
Altestimataj sinjoroj! En la ĵurnalo de via urbo mi legis, ke vi serĉas kontoriston. (Esperanto)
Altestimata siori! En la jurnalo di via urbo mi lektis, ke vi serchas kontoristo. (Ido) Estimatissime seniores!
In le jornal de heri de vostre urbe io ha legite, que vos cerca un commisso. (Interlingua) (Sigurd 1993 : 110)
Someone unfamiliar with the languages can be excused for assuming that all three of them are some obscure dialects of Spanish or Portuguese. Looking at the Swedish translation of the sentence given in the source (‘Vördade herrar! I Eder stads tidning läser jag att ni söker en kontorist’), I cannot help but wonder whether Swedish should also be promoted as a potential global lingua franca. Compared to some languages, it is already wonderfully simple; one would only have to do away with the gender system, reduce the number of plural endings and conjugate all verbs as if they belonged to Group 1. There is no doubt that Western European languages such as Spanish, French and, of course, English have more of a global presence than Russian or Polish, the two biggest Slavic languages. However, to people whose first language belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family – to cite the most numerous example – any artificial language based on Spanish, English and French is unlikely to appear significantly less alien and intimidating than Slovio; this, in my opinion, is the main problem with the language projects proposed so far. Unfortunately, I have been unable to find reliable studies of the comparative learnability of Esperanto or other constructed languages by people with different language backgrounds. Even so, I am inclined to think that replacing English with Esperanto would make the lives of Chinese speakers a little easier – but it would still leave them at a disadvantage compared to (Indo-)Europeans.
4. What does it take to make a true global lingua franca?
To put it in a nutshell, I believe it takes a lot of mutual trust, meticulous research and rational discussion, none of which seem to be too common in global politics. However, as the dream of a fair universal language is utopian in any case, I feel licensed to outline here what is, in my opinion, essential to make the dream come true:
a) The phonemic inventory of a truly universal lingua franca should be very compact and include only those sounds that occur in an absolute majority of language families. The number of such sounds is unlikely to be very high, but if a fully functional natural language such as Hawaiian is able to manage with just 13 distinct phonemes (5 vowels and 8 consonants), there is no real reason why a global lingua franca should have many more. User-friendly phonotactics are also extremely important. Esperanto has been rightly criticised for its consonant clusters (e. g. in funkcio, punkto, ekzemplo), which pose a serious difficulty to speakers of some non-Indo-European languages. There are natural languages that allow very few or no consonant clusters at all and require every syllable to end in a vowel (Crystal 1997); this could be a good strategy for a global lingua franca.
b)Phonetic considerations obviously limit the extent to which already existing words from various languages can be incorporated into a global lingua franca in their original form. Roots will have to be carefully selected from a genuinely representative sample of languages and then modified to fit the phonetic requirements of the new lingua franca: shorter words will be preferred, longer words will be clipped, extra consonants will be discarded, and extra vowels will be inserted. Quite possibly, some words may need to be created from scratch. The core vocabulary should contain concepts found in a majority of language families; the more peripheral vocabulary may need to have an equivalent – not necessarily in a one-word form – for every concept ever expressed in a language. Clear and simple morphological guidelines for borrowing and creating new lexical items will need to be laid down that will fit the phonetic requirements of the language.
c)As for the grammar, it may be a good idea to look to creolised pidgins for inspiration. Most grammatical phenomena that creoles (and especially major world languages) manage to do without can be safely left out – only those that do not cause international learners any significant difficulty may be allowed as a matter of consensus. To cite a few examples from Esperanto, features like the adjective-noun agreement, the definite article, the adjective-adverb distinction and the notorious Accusative marker can hardly qualify for inclusion.
d)A well-funded international body will have to be set up to carry out the necessary research and actual language creation. Any final version of the new language will have to be tried out on a representative learner group. Once the language itself has been created and accepted by the international community, it will take at least several years to prepare the world for a simultaneous launch: promote the project, create learning materials, train a host of teachers, translate a body of information into the language, introduce social and educational incentives to learn it etc etc.
For humanity in its present state, this is a tall order. On the other hand, many things have happened that would have been dismissed as pipe-dreaming only a century ago. One of them has been the creation of a multinational European superstate, uniting countries that, until very recently, used to regularly go to war with each other. Perhaps, the EU could keep up the good work and set another good example for the rest of the world by adopting Esperanto as the pan-European lingua franca. After all, it has been pointed out time and again that at least Europeans are guaranteed to find it easy to learn.
Although the Finns, the Estonians, the Hungarians and the Basques might, of course, have their own view on the matter.
References:
Berger, Tilman. 2004. Vom Erfinden slavischer Sprachen. Slovio.com. Available at http://www.slovio.com/linkis/BergerPlansprachen.pdf Accessed on 1st April, 2007.
Crystal, David. 2003. English as a Global Language. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Crystal, David. 1997. The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Fettes, Mark. 1991. Europe’s Babylon: Towards a Single European Language? First published in the series Esperanto Documents. Available at http://esperantic.org/ced/eurlan.htm Accessed on 1st April, 2007.
Graddol, David. 2006 English Next: Why Global English May Mean the End of ‘English as a Foreign Language’. British Council Learning. Available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-english-next.pdf Accessed on 2d April, 2007.
LaFarge, Paul. Pük, Memory: Why I Learned a Universal Language No One Speaks. The Village Voice, August 2 – 8, 2000. Available at http://www.villagevoice.com/arts/0031,lafarge,16942,12.html . Accessed on 2d April, 2007.
Marani, Diego. From productive process to language, or How to cause international English to implode. Newropeans – Arts, Sports, MKP2001, Neurope Tower, Europanto. Available at http://www.neuropeans.com/topic/europanto/what/more.php Accessed on 1st April, 2007.
Mulaik, Stanley. Interlingua for English Speakers. A Quick Survey. Societate American pro Interlingua. Available at http://www.myhomeoffice-online.com/interlinguaus/pakupaku/index.php?page=Interlinguaforanglos Accessed on 1st April, 2007.
Phillipson, Robert. 2003. English-Only Europe? : Challenging Language Policy. Routledge. London.
Sigurd, Bengt. 1993. Esperanto, transpiranto och andra konstgjorda språk. In Jerker Blomqvist and Ulf Teleman, ed. Språk i världen: Broar och barrierer. Lund University Press. Lund. 103 – 114.